Celebrating Hispanic Heritage Month: Encyclopedia of Latino Culture

It is important to celebrate Hispanic Heritage Month. U.S. Latinos/as today constitutes a dynamic and very diverse population in this country. Their growth in the past few decades has been very rapid to the point where they have already surpassed African Americans as the largest ethnic minority in the United Sates. According to the 2010 U.S. census, there had been a 43 percent increase in the Latino/a population since 2000, from a total of 35 million to over 50 million inhabitants. They are expected to become an increasingly important force culturally, politically, and economically in the next few decades. 

It is very important to understand that U.S. Latinos/as share strong cultural bonds and a common heritage and language, but at the same time they are very diverse in many other respects; their histories are different and they also differ racially and ethnically. For example, many Mexican Americans come from families that have lived in the U.S. Southwest for many generations and many others come from families who have arrived in the United States from Mexico. Many Latinos/as, whose past can be traced to countries such as Mexico, the Central American countries of Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, and the Andean countries of Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile, have brought with them a rich Indian and mestizo ancestry. Many Latinos/as from the Caribbean countries of Cuba and the Dominican Republic, the island of Puerto Rico, and Brazil can trace their ancestry as far back the beginning of African slavery in the New World. It would be a mistake to think that U.S. Latinos/as form a monolithic and homogeneous group. In addition to their racial and ethnic differences, they are diverse in other ways including: economic status; political preferences; religious affiliations; education, language proficiency in both English and Spanish; rates of assimilation into U.S. society; ongoing connections to their countries of origin; customs; and cultural practices. It is this last aspect of U.S. Latino/a culture that led to the creation of the Encyclopedia of Latino Culture.

When I was asked by the editors at Greenwood Press to edit this three-volume publication, I did not hesitate. I knew that this would this would afford me a marvelous opportunity to become more knowledgeable about the breadth of U.S. Latino/a culture because most of my published research and teaching had been focused on the literature and popular culture of Mexican Americans. I knew also that in seeking out contributors to write the various entries, I would become better acquainted with experts in many different aspects of U.S. Latino/a culture. These were somewhat selfish reasons for taking on what became a two-year project, but I also believed that such an encyclopedia designed for the general reader and the high school student would be different and more accessible than similar projects. I am now in the final year of my long academic career, and am gratified that bringing this huge project to fruition will, I hope, contribute to an overall better understanding and appreciation of the rich cultural contributions and customs of U.S. Latinos/as.    

Charles M. Tatum, PhD, is the editor of the forthcoming, Encyclopedia of Latino Culture: From Calaveras to Quinceañeras, November 2013, ISBN: 978-1-4408-0098-6

He is Professor of Spanish and Chicano Studies at the University of Arizona. He was for fifteen years dean of College of Humanities. He has written and edited several books on Chicana/o literature and popular culture including Chicano Popular Culture: Que hable el pueblo (2001), Chicano and Chicana Literature: Otra voz del pueblo (2006) and Lowriders in Chicano Culture: From Low to Slow to Show (2001). He the co-founder of the journal, Studies in Latin American Popular Culture. 

César Chávez Day

Each year on March 31, celebrations in observation of César Chávez Day are held in many states around the country. The holiday, held on Chávez's birthday, pays tribute to the labor leader's commitment to securing basic rights for migrant workers. To date, César Chávez Day is an optional holiday in nine states: Arizona, Colorado, Illinois, Michigan, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, Wisconsin, and Rhode Island. It is an official state holiday in California, where in 1965 the farmworker movement first took hold when Chávez's National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) joined Filipino American workers in the Delano grape strike; these efforts provided the spark for what later became the United Farm Workers (UFW).


California has celebrated César Chávez Day since 2001, largely due to the efforts of Los Angeles volunteers who lobbied for a holiday to commemorate Chávez and his legacy. In 1999, state senator Richard Polanco introduced SB 984, which would make March 31 known as César Chávez Day. The bill was signed into law by Gov. Gray Davis on August 18, 2000, and the following spring, Chávez's birthday was celebrated for the first time as a state holiday.


For 2012, a number of activities, including parades, entertainment, and service projects, are being planned throughout California and other states for César Chávez Day. In San Luis, Arizona, for example, local organizations are planning a weekend-long event that includes a public health forum arranged by the farm worker advocacy group Campesinos Sin Fronteras (Farmworkers Without Borders); a parade of up to 500 horses and riders; and a music festival honoring Chávez. Many universities are also hosting special events in commemoration of Chávez's birthday. Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, for instance, is sponsoring educational events on Chávez and a day of service; and San Jose State University will mark its first official César Chávez Day celebration with a morning of planting crops in the community.


Find out more about the life of César Chávez—from his humble roots as a migrant worker to his achievements as one of the most influential labor leaders in the 20th century—by reading the complete Feature Story on the Latino American Experience. If you are not already a subscriber, click here for a free trial.

Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers Movement

On March 31, California celebrates César Chávez Day, an official state holiday honoring one of the most iconic Latino leaders in U.S. history. Observed on Chávez's birthday, the holiday is optional in several other states, including Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. In the commentary below, former National Archives deputy director and author of Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers Movement Roger Bruns provides insights on Chávez's accomplishments and reasons for why his life and legacy are important to remember.


History has a way of dealing with heroes and icons. First, there is the treatment that sculpts the image as an idol nearly free of imperfections. Then, there is the revisionist treatment that cuts into the myths and tall tales. Finally, there is clearer reflection, recognizing that the man or woman had flaws, sometimes deep ones, that afflict even the most accomplished and successful figures.


In the case of César Chávez, recent revisionist books, scrupulously researched and thoughtful, have moved sharply away from the image of Chávez as a kind of saintly visionary. They have recounted the internal strife that plagued the farm workers movement in the 1970s and fractured many of the gains it had achieved in the harvest fields. They have documented the bitterness and sadness surrounding many of Chávez’s closest associates who left the union or were thrown aside amidst conflict and misunderstanding. They have illustrated how Chávez was not an efficient union administrator, that he was often domineering and controlling, and that the union itself is now a shadow of the force it once was, if only for a few shining years. All of this is true, but . . .


He was the unlikeliest of leaders. Born into a poor family of Mexican Americans outside Yuma, Arizona, faced with an early life doing hard labor as a migrant farm worker in the harvest fields, without money or influence, with little formal education, Chávez took on a personal crusade that seemed totally quixotic, a foregone failure. He would attempt to organize a movement of farm workers, of the campesinos, among whom he grew up.


With little more than grit and uncommon instincts of leadership, Chávez took on a fight against powerful forces of American agribusiness and formidable political enemies. With the help of allies such as Dolores Huerta, he made possible what seemed to most observers a fanciful dream—the United Farm Workers (UFW).


"La Causa," or "The Cause," was never a typical union. It was a movement for dignity as well as higher pay; it was for Latino self-identity as well as for bargaining rights. It had a profound national impact. The sparks of protest lit by Chávez in the tiny town of Delano, California, showed to the world the exploitation of thousands of Americans and the need for social justice.

He attracted to his side extraordinary individuals willing to sacrifice and dedicate themselves to the movement. With few resources, they carried on strikes and national boycotts, won contracts with growers, battled relentlessly against the Teamsters Union and others who resented the audacity and then their success. They influenced legislation, registered people to vote, and changed political dynamics.


In the rise of the farm workers movement, Chávez, Huerta, and the other leaders melded strong passion, commitment, and belief from various elements: religious heritage anchored in Christian social justice; aggressive, nonviolent protest principles exemplified in the civil rights movement and in the teachings of Gandhi; and the community organizing skills developed by Saul Alinsky, Fred Ross and other leaders of organizations fighting for equal rights and justice for the workers and others left on the outside of the American Dream.


The UFW also contributed to a more general movement for civil rights among Mexican Americans during the 1960s and 1970s. It helped inspire a new generation of Mexican American youths to organize their communities and become active in social and political programs. As the movement grew, the picture of Chávez became, along with others, one that hung in the homes of Latinos.


What the UFW accomplished will never be forgotten by the workers themselves or by the thousands of social activists who have been inspired and energized by the farm workers' struggle. Chávez’s movement, with its energy and appeal to the religious and cultural heritage of Mexican Americans, had lit a spark in the harvest fields that consumed old notions that life could not improve, that the system holding down the workers was too intractable and too powerful that it could be changed.


The UFW did not ultimately become a successful labor union, as the revisionists have shown. Yet, the movement stirred passions and commitments to action for countless Latinos, passions that continued to resonate long after his death. People who had shared common humiliations and shattered pride now fought back. People who had never before considered joining social movements now became activists. La Causa had never been simply an effort to found a union; it had been a battle for self-respect—standing up, at last, against a system that destroyed dignity. Not only for farm workers but for other Mexican Americans, the movement became an exciting struggle. People for the first time in their lives joined picket lines in front of grocery stores, passed out leaflets, registered others to vote, sang the songs and chants of protest, and gained a new awareness that they could actually make a difference. La Causa was a fight for empowerment and self-determination.


Chávez said that history would be on the side of the workers, especially the Mexican Americans who were taking their proper place in American society, despite the formidable opposition they faced. In those towns such as Salinas, Delano, Fresno, Bakersfield and Modesto, those towns that had been battlegrounds of the farm workers, it would be the children and grandchildren of those workers who would, in the end, gain justice. Sí, se puede!


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Learn more about César Chávez by reading this month's Feature Story, "Celebrating Cesar Chavez Day," on the Latino American Experience. The database also features a primary source collection that includes the complete set of files from the FBI's surveillance of the labor leader, as well as a wide selection of documents, photos, and video clips related to the broader farmworker movement . If you are not already a subscriber, click here for a free trial.

Valentine's Day

The identity of Saint Valentine for whom the day is named is unclear. There are several possible Valentines who were martyred or beheaded during the februa, or the Roman festival of purification held on February 15. One legendary Valentine was a Roman priest or bishop who lived during the reign of Emperor Claudius the Second. Claudius believed that married men made poor soldiers, so he banned marriage for young men who would potentially become soldiers. Valentine defied the Emperor's decree and continued to quietly marry young couples in clandestine locations, an activity that was considered treasonous by Romans. Valentine's secret marriage ceremonies were eventually discovered. Attempts were made to dissuade him from continuing the nuptials and even to get him to convert to paganism. Valentine refused. He was imprisoned and beheaded on February 14.


Other stories tell of a Valentine who assisted Christians to escape prisons where they were brutally treated. Valentine, himself, was eventually imprisoned. While in prison, Valentine is thought to have fallen in love with the blind daughter of the jailor who visited him during his incarceration. Valentine restored her sight. Despite the jailor's pleas for Valentine's release, Valentine was sentenced to death. On his way to be executed he passed a note to the jailor's daughter that read, "With love, from your Valentine."


Yet another Valentine suffered in an African prison along with several companions and was eventually martyred, but nothing else is known of him. All three of these Valentines are mentioned in early martyrologies for February 14. The legend surrounding Valentine is likely an amalgamation of romanticized stories about several different people. The feast of St. Valentine was dropped from the church calendar in 1969.


Some see the holiday as having its roots in the Roman feast of Lupercalia, a celebration that was dedicated to Faunus, the Roman god of agriculture and that honored Rome's founders, Romulus and Remus. It was celebrated on the ides of February. Roman priests of the Luperci traditionally sacrificed a goat for fertility and a dog for purification in the cave where twin brothers Romulus and Remus were cared for by the she-wolf. After the ceremony, boys would slice the goat hide into strips and soak them in the sacrificial blood. They would then run through the streets slapping the fields and women with the blood-soaked strips hoping to bring greater fertility for the coming year. Other events of the day included a custom wherein young women placed their names in an urn. Young men would then draw a name from the vessel and become paired with the woman for the coming year. Many of these matches ended in marriage. In time this practice was outlawed.


The popular traditions of Valentine's Day are generally traced to medieval times. February 14 was thought to be the date when birds begin to pair. In 1381, Chaucer composed a poem in honor of the engagement of Richard III and Anne of Bohemia. Following poetic tradition of the day, he linked the occasion to a feast day. His Parliament of Fowls includes the line, "For this was on St. Valentine's Day when every fowl cometh there to choose his mate," thus linking the engagement, the mating of birds, and St. Valentine forever.


The day came to be thought upon as one that was dedicated to lovers and an occasion for sending tokens and messages of love, many of which initially were in song. The oldest known written valentine was sent from Charles, Duke of Orleans, who while confined in the Tower of London following the battle of Agincourt in 1415, composed romantic verses for his wife in France. Several years later, Henry V hired a writer, John Lydgate, to compose a valentine to Catherine of Valois.


In 1640, a book titled Cupid's Messenger appeared containing poetic verses and romantic sonnets in flowery language. By 1645 many of these verses began to be published more widely and such passionate lines could be found in periodicals and other publications. Samuel Pepys's Diary contains an entry for St. Valentine's Day in 1667 noting a surprise valentine he received from his wife. The handwritten message of love was written in gold on paper that had been cut out with scissors and pasted against a blue pastel paper.


During the 18th century booklets known as writers became popular. They contained an assortment of verses and messages that men could copy into letters to their sweetheart. The book also suggested replies for ladies to return. These messages were usually copied on to specially decorated papers with open space for handwritten messages.


Prior to the 19th century, valentines were handmade and took a number of forms. Puzziks or puzzle purses were made from folded paper. They had many folds of verses that had to be written in a certain order. The order of the verses was usually numbered and sometimes the recipient had to twist the folds in order to determine the complete message. Rebus valentines contained romantic verses with certain words or phrases replaced by tiny pictures. For the sentence "I love you so much," the word I would be replaced by the picture of an eye, love by a heart, you with the picture of a female sheep (a ewe), and so with the illustration of a piece of fabric with a needle and thread, leaving only the word much written out. Pinprick valentines were made by piercing tiny holes in paper with a pin or needle to create the appearance of lace. Some valentines used acrostics where the beloved's name was spelled out by the first letter of each verse of the valentine.


By 1815 most of the cities and even rural towns of England had a Penny Post. Prior to this time postage was expensive, and many valentines were either hand-delivered or left on the doorstep. The exchange of valentines increased considerably. For a brief period from 1820 to 1829 insulting valentines, known as penny dreadfuls were sent in certain circles. These cards featured insulting rhymes and unflattering illustrations. Fortunately, this practice was relatively short-lived. When uniform postal rates were introduced throughout the entire United Kingdom in 1840, the English tradition of the valentine really took off. Valentines could affordably be sent all over the country and even beyond its borders.


The Victorian period brought with it the "Golden Age of the English Valentine." Specially made papers with intricate designs became available. Cupids, doves, hearts, and other designs were printed on cards adorned with satin, silk, and netting. The decorated papers were folded into quarto size and decorated with embossed borders as well as pictorial scenes. Some were further decorated with beads, feathers, and lace paper. The paper was then folded over and sealed with wax. Lacy valentines reached their peak in popularity between the 1840s and 1860s. Valentines continued to be more innovative with mechanical valentines that moved when a tab was pulled.


The tradition of valentines in the United States did not become popular until the 1850s when Esther A. Howland, of Worcester, Massachusetts, began commercial production of handmade valentines. While working in her father's stationary store, she became intrigued by the laced papers and valentines her father imported from England. She began to cut out some designs of her own, further adorning them with crepe and paper flowers and some original artwork. Her father was impressed with her creations and ordered more supplies for her work. Her brother, who traveled around the countryside promoting their father's business, took along some of his sister's creations. They were an overwhelming success. Esther hired some of her friends to help her in drawing and copying valentine designs. She set up a production line where one young woman would paste the background, another cut out the pictures, and finally one to glue on the trim. By 1862 one New York card company bought over $30,000 worth of her valentines.


During the Civil War it became popular to have valentines made of a heart split-in-two, representing the separation of the soldier from his sweetheart. Some valentines had tent flaps which when opened revealed a soldier awaiting his beloved with open arms. After the war a similar theme was used with a church and a window that opened to reveal a bride and groom. Some wartime valentines included a lock of the lover's hair. Other valentines from the Civil War period are of the paper doll variety with elaborate trim and embroidery.


By the turn of the century, valentines were generally mass-produced. Postcard valentines were especially popular during the first decade of the 20th century. While 19th-century etiquette prohibited women from sending valentines, the modern times of the early 20th century lifted the taboo. Whimsical valentines became popular. Many children would exchange them with their friends. By mid-century, books of punch-out valentines were marketed for children. These books often even included one valentine to be given to the teacher. It was not unusual for schoolrooms to have a valentine "mailbox" to facilitate the exchange. Many children's valentines had a cartoon quality and carried humorous messages.


Traditional Valentine's Day colors are red, pink, and white. Red symbolizes passion and deep affection. White represents purity and faithfulness and devotion. Pink signifies warmth and loving kindness.


The heart is the most common symbol associated with the day. It is often paired with other symbols such as an arrow that pierces the heart, thus showing the vulnerability of expressing one's love. Cupid is also a popular symbol. The mythological winged youth is usually depicted with a bow and quiver of arrows, which he used to transfix the hearts of young men and women. Doves are used to represent loyalty and love because they mate for life. Love knots, with a series of interwoven loops with no seeming beginning or end, symbolize everlasting love and are often incorporated into borders. The letters o and x have come to represent hugs and kisses. The o symbolizes an embrace, and the x is thought by many to have evolved from the medieval practice of those who could not write signing with an x and then kissing the x before a witness as a sign of sincerity.


Flowers have long been a popular valentine's gift. During the early 1700s Charles II of Sweden brought the Persian poetical art known as the "Language of Flowers" to Europe. Various flowers were associated with certain feelings and developed specific meanings. This permitted couples to exchange romantic secrets without ever uttering a word. Books were written detailing many shades of meaning and covered a wide variety of blooms of all sorts. The jonquil was said to mean that the sender desired a return of affection. The purple lilac represented the first emotions of love. Ivy meant fidelity and marriage. Sometimes the color of the blossom carried the meaning. The red rose was the symbol of love but the white rose indicated innocence or friendship. A yellow rose meant jealousy or even betrayal. The practice of using flowers as expressions of romantic love gained popularity, reaching its height in the late 19th century. The red rose remains as the most popular botanical representation of love.


Candy, particularly chocolate, is another popular valentine's gift. The custom of giving chocolate dates back to the 19th century when chocolate was an expensive gift. While not made out of chocolate, conversation hearts have come to be a Valentine's staple. Originally, the candies were small, crisp, scallop-shaped candies wrapped in colored paper printed with sayings. Sweet Hearts, which were candies with the motto inscribed directly on them, were first made in 1900. The candy was cut into shapes like horseshoes or baseballs in order to allow longer sayings. In time the sayings became shorter and the now familiar heart shape was introduced.

Volo, Dorothy Denneen. "Valentine's Day." Daily Life through History. ABC-CLIO, 2012. Web. 14 Feb. 2012.

Holiday Recipe #8 - Chocolate-Covered Coconut Macaroons

King David's Chocolate-Covered Coconut Macaroons
(This is a recipe that we used in the book Cooking with the Bible: Recipes for Biblical Meals. It's a hit every time.)

Ingredients
3 ½ cups unsweetened shredded coconut
¼ cup matzoh cake meal
1 ¼ cups granulated sugar
2 large eggs, separated, plus 1 egg white
6 oz. imported bittersweet chocolate
¼ cup water
1 tsp. almond extract


Directions

1. Cover 2 baking sheets with parchment paper. Preheat oven to 325°F.
2. In bowl, mix together coconut, matzoh cake meal, and 1 cup of the sugar. Add eggs and extra egg white and mix with fingers until well blended. Gently shape about 2 tablespoons dough into a pyramid and set on prepared baking sheet. Repeat with remaining dough, leaving about 2″ between cookies. Bake for about 25 minutes or until golden on top. Cool completely.
3. In saucepan, melt chocolate with the water, almond extract, and remaining ¼ cup sugar. Bring to boil; then simmer slowly for a few minutes until mixture starts to thicken. Cool slightly. Holding each macaroon with 2 fingers, dip half the cookie into the chocolate so that it is half black and half white. Allow to dry for a few seconds while tilted over a dish, then place on wax paper. Repeat with remaining cookies. Cool completely.

Yield: 16 macaroons


[Source: King David's Chocolate-Covered Coconut Macaroons recipe reprinted by permission of Recipe Gold Mine]

Holiday Recipe #6 - Pike's Apple Torte

Pike’s Apple Torte
(This recipe recreates a dessert from the film Big Eden. Although there was not enough room for this movie in Cooking with the Movies, it's a wonderful film with delicious food.)


Ingredients 
7 Tbsp. butter
2 c. Red Delicious apples, skinned, cored, and sliced
4 eggs, well beaten
1 ½ c. sugar
¾ c. all-purpose flour, sifted
2 8-oz. packages cream cheese
1 tsp. baking powder
1 tsp. cinnamon
½ tsp. lemon zest
½ tsp. salt
¼ tsp. baking soda
¼ tsp. nutmeg
½ c. chopped walnuts


Topping
1 c. Granny Smith apples, cored, pared, and thinly sliced
½ c. brown sugar
1 tsp. cinnamon


Directions

• Preheat oven to 350°F.
• In a small frying pan, melt half the butter and fry the apples in it until soft, about 3-4 minutes on each side. (Do not allow to burn.) Pour out into a large bowl, and mix together with the remaining butter and all other ingredients.
• Generously butter a 9” round funnel cake pan. Pour the mixture into it.
• In a large bowl, combine the topping ingredients. Individually place each apple slice on top of the cake mixture, in a fan shape, or some other clever way.
• Bake for 60 minutes, or until the center is set. Allow to cool on a wire rack before serving.

Yield: 8-12 servings


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Recipes provided by Cooking with the Movies: Meals on Reels authors Anthony F. Chiffolo and Rayner W. Hesse, Jr.

Holiday Recipe #5 - Wilted Lettuce with Peas and Pearl Onions

Wilted Lettuce with Peas and Pearl Onions
(From the film Gosford Park)


Ingredients
1 head iceberg lettuce, shredded
1 bag frozen peas, or 2 small cans
1 bag frozen pearl onions
2 c. water
1 lb. bacon, well done and cut into bits
1 Tbsp. bacon grease


Directions
In a medium pot, combine the lettuce, peas, and pearl onions with the water and cook until the lettuce is quite wilted and the peas and onions are cooked through. Drain. Add the bacon bits and grease, toss, and serve.


Yield: 6 servings


Although a dish featuring “wilted” lettuce might lack a certain “title” appeal, this recipe is quickly prepared, colorful, and quite tasty.


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Recipes provided by Cooking with the Movies: Meals on Reels authors Anthony F. Chiffolo and Rayner W. Hesse, Jr.

Holiday Recipe #4 - Brussels Sprouts with Hazelnuts

Brussels Sprouts with Hazelnuts
(This recipe is from the movie Gosford Park, directed by Robert Altman.)


Ingredients
1 lb. fresh Brussels sprouts (try to buy them fresh the day they are to be used)
salted water
4 Tbsp. butter, melted
½ c. light brown sugar
1 tsp. Balsamic vinegar
¼ tsp. black pepper
½ c. hazelnuts, chopped


Directions

1. Preheat oven to 375°F.
2. Wash the sprouts and pull off any yellowed leaves. Parboil them in just enough salted water to cover for no more than 5 minutes, then drain.
3. In a small bowl, mix the butter and brown sugar with the Balsamic vinegar and pepper, then stir in the hazelnuts. Transfer the mixture to cover the bottom of a small baking dish. Place the sprouts on top of the nut mix, close enough together so that they don’t tip over. Bake in the oven for 25 minutes. Serve piping hot as an accompaniment.

Yield: 6–8 servings


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Recipes provided by Cooking with the Movies: Meals on Reels authors Anthony F. Chiffolo and Rayner W. Hesse, Jr.

Delicious Holiday Recipes!

Thanksgiving has come and gone, but that shouldn't mean that an entire year has to go by before we can enjoy turkey, stuffing, and all the other delicious holiday fare once again. Over the next two weeks, we'll be sharing some of the amazing recipes from authors Anthony Chiffolo and Rayner (Rusty) Hesse, Jr., and their book Cooking with the Movies: Meals on Reels, so you can enjoy the tastes of Thanksgiving all holiday season.

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For this year's Thanksgiving feast, we (well, mostly Rusty) prepared a luscious organic turkey with oyster and shiitake mushroom stuffing. This is one of the turkeys shown in the film What's Cooking? and is featured in a chapter on the movie in our book Cooking with the Movies: Meals on Reels.


For those who would like to enjoy the meal vicariously—and, next year, perhaps in actuality—here are the recipes:


Organic Turkey


Ingredients
1 20–24 lb. fresh organic turkey
½ c. melted butter
½ c. dried sage
½ c. dried tarragon
¼ c. paprika
2 Tbsp. garlic powder
1 tsp. lime pepper
1 tsp. salt
mushroom stuffing (see next)
½ c. water
1 pkg. fresh spinach leaves

Directions

1. Preheat oven to 325°F.
2. Wash the turkey inside and out, making sure to remove the neck and giblets that are usually stuffed inside the cavity of the bird. Pat dry. Place in a large roasting pan on sheets of aluminum foil set perpendicular to one another so that the pan is completely covered and there is enough foil left to lift the bird from the pan when holding all sides. Stuff the turkey just before placing it in the oven as per the instructions that follow. Pour the melted butter over the top of the turkey. Mix all the dry ingredients together in a small bowl, then spoon them over the bird, making sure to cover the legs as well as the breast. Pour the water around the sides of the turkey, and bake uncovered for 4–5 hours, basting about every 20–30 minutes with its own juices. (If desired, test with a meat thermometer to ensure that it is thoroughly cooked [165°F for inner breast, 180°F for the legs] and safe to serve.)
3. Remove turkey from the oven and let it stand for 20–30 minutes before slicing. Place the turkey on a large serving tray that has been completely laid out with spinach leaves as decoration (presentation is everything!).

Yield: 15–18 servings

Mrs. Williams’s Special Oyster and Shiitake Mushroom Stuffing

Ingredients
2 c. hot water
1 oz. dried porcini mushrooms
1¾ lb. bread, crust trimmed, cubed
6 Tbsp. unsalted butter
3 leeks, chopped
1 c. shallots, chopped
1¼ lb. oyster mushrooms
½ lb. Shiitake mushrooms
2 c. celery, chopped
1 c. dry hazelnuts, chopped
2 Tbsp. fresh sage
salt and pepper to taste
2 eggs, beaten
¾ c. chicken stock

Directions

1. Combine hot water and porcini mushrooms in a bowl. Let stand until mushrooms are soft, about 30 minutes. Drain, reserving liquid. Chop porcini mushrooms. Set aside.
2. Preheat oven to 325°F. Bake cubed bread on baking sheets until brown, about 15 minutes. Cool, then transfer to a large bowl.
3. Melt the butter over medium-high heat. Add leeks, shallots, and oyster and Shiitake mushrooms. Sauté until golden brown, about 15 minutes. Mix in the celery and porcini mushrooms and sauté another 5 minutes. Transfer mixture to the bowl with the bread cubes. Mix in the hazelnuts and sage. Season with salt and pepper and stir in the eggs and chicken stock. Stuff into turkey.
4. Any stuffing that remains, spoon into a buttered baking dish, covered with buttered foil. Bake stuffing in dish alongside turkey until heated through, about 30 minutes. Uncover and bake until top is crisp, about 15 minutes.

Yield: 12 servings


The lusciousness of an organic turkey is a real treat for the taste buds. Cooking is the same as for any other turkey, but an organic bird will be a bit more costly. Still, it’s worth the extra expense.


The meal continued with some wonderful vegetable dishes: sweet potatoes, brussels sprouts, and "wilted" lettuce. Check back soon for these recipes!

El Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead)

The following is an excerpt from Carrasco, Davíd and Scott Sessions. "El Día de los Muertos 2011: Background." The American Mosaic: The Latino American Experience. ABC-CLIO, 2011. Web. 25 Oct. 2011:

One of the most meaningful yearly celebrations in Mexico, in fact throughout Latin America, is El Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead), celebrated for nearly a week at the end of October and the beginning of November. This elaborate celebration, dedicated to the cult of the dead (also referred to as Todos Santos—All Saints' Day), combines pre-Columbian rituals and beliefs with Catholic practices and symbols. Although Day of the Dead rituals are complex and difficult to categorize, the central idea is that during this period of public and private (family) rituals, the living and dead family members and friends are joined together in an atmosphere of communion and spiritual regeneration.

Important elements of Day of the Dead festivities in Central Mexico were practiced by Aztecs and have become integrated into the Catholic traditions of Mexico and other parts of Latin America. This same pattern of images of the dead, altar, food offerings, incense, and communion is carried out today. It is important to note that the rituals, symbols, and elaborate decorations of home altars and cemeteries differ somewhat according to region. Some communities emphasize cemetery altars and decorations, whereas others emphasize the processions between home and cemetery. Still others make unusual efforts to decorate their home altars to dead ancestors in baroque, lavish ways. But all Day of the Dead celebrations focus on a spiritual covenant between the human community and supernatural entities of deceased family members, friends, or saints. What is outstanding in all cases is the belief that what happens during one's life here on this earth is dependent, in part, on treating the dead well. People believe that if the dead are not worshipped, nurtured, and remembered in the proper manner, their own economic security, family stability, and health will be in jeopardy. Therefore, careful and generous preparations are carried out.

Discover more on the history and traditions of El Dia de los Muertos—from its roots in both pre-Columbian and Christian rituals to contemporary forms of celebration in Latin America and the United States—by checking out the full Feature Story on the Latino American Experience. If you are not already a subscriber, click here for a free trial.


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Additional Resources

Daily Life of the Aztecs, Second Edition
Davíd Carrasco and Scott Sessions
Greenwood, 2011


Examine the fascinating details of the daily lives of the ancient Aztecs through this innovative study of their social history, culture, and continuing influence, written from the perspective of the history of religions.

Encyclopedia of Latino Popular Culture
Cordelia Chávez Candelaria, Arturo J. Aldama and Peter J. García
Greenwood, 2004


This 2-volume set is the first to encapsulate the breadth of Latina/Latino popular culture and its impact on the wider American culture.

Dictionary Of Chicano Folklore
Rafaela G. Castro
ABC-CLIO, 2000


Dictionary of Chicano Folklore charts the rich religious, social, artistic, and cultural heritage of Mexican Americans, who continue to evolve the customs and rituals connected to their Spanish and indigenous roots and the Spanish language.

India Celebrates 2011 Gandhi Jayanti and Diwali

October marks the celebration of two of India's major national holidays: the birthday of Gandhi Jayanti and the festival of Diwali. This year, Diwali will be celebrated on Wednesday, October 26th. The following is an edited excerpt from India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic, edited by Arnold P. Kaminsky and Roger Long:

The Republic of India celebrates three national holidays: Republic Day (January 26), Independence Day (August 15) and Gandhi Jayanti, celebrated every year on October 2. On this day Indians mark the birth of Mohandas Mahatma Karamchand Gandhi (1869–1948), considered the “father of the country” by most Indians. Celebrations include local and state festivities, prayer services, and other remembrances of Gandhi’s sacrifice for freedom from British rule in a unified India and his lifelong commitment to nonviolence.

Beyond the official secular holidays celebrated by Indians, there are several religious festivals and traditions that consume the attention of a large percentage of the population each year. Among the most colorful and boisterous is the Hindu festival known as Diwali (also known as Depawali, Dipavali, Dewali, Diwali, Divali, Dipotsavi, Dipapratipad). Diwali is the “festival of lights,” and in India is spread over five days in autumn and is scheduled according to the Hindu Lunar calendar. There are many different names for the days of Diwali in different regions of India (South & North India, East & West India) and in the different languages spoken in these regions (i.e. Hindi, Urdu, Telugu, Tamil, Gujarati, Bengali).

Although primarily a Hindu holiday, Diwali marks the beginning of the Hindu New Year and its origins predate modern Hinduism. As such, activities are related to the diversity of meanings given to the festival by the various Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist sects who celebrate the holiday. Most celebrations center on the use of light, with candles, oil lamps, and electric lights decorating houses during this time. Sweets and other edibles are prepared, and pujas (worship) to various gods and ancestors are carried out, but people pray especially to Lakshmi, Goddess of wealth, light, prosperity and wisdom, and also to Ganesha, the 'Remover of Obstacles' and the 'Lord of Beginnings'. 

One loud aspect of Diwali is the widespread use of fireworks and “crackers.” These celebratory devices of black powder and paper turn normally quiet villages and cities into raucous places of celebration. One day of Diwali is also afforded the honor of being a public holiday, a day off for government officials, schools, and banks.

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Arnold P. Kaminsky, PhD, is professor of history at California State University, Long Beach, CA, and former chair of the Department of Asian and Asian American Studies. He was the founding director of the Yadunandan Center for India Studies at CSULB. A specialist on modern India and South Asia, his published works include The India Office: 1880–1910 and a number of articles and book chapters on the administrative history of India. Kaminsky has received numerous grants and fellowships to advance his research and engage in curricular design of Asia in the schools. He recently worked with the National Knowledge Commission of India to establish teacher education and higher education leadership collaboration between CSULB and Indian universities.

Roger D. Long, PhD, is professor of history at Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI. His research focuses on India during the 20th century, particularly during the 1930s and 1940s, with special reference to the nationalist movement. He has edited a number of volumes, including The Founding of Pakistan: An Annotated Bibliography; The Man on the Spot: Essays on British Empire History; Charisma and Commitment in South Asian History: Essays Presented to Stanley Wolpert; The Political Career of Muhammad Ali Jinnah; and 'Dear Mr. Jinnah': Selected Correspondence and Speeches of Liaquat Ali Khan, 1937–1947.

India Today
An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic
Edited by Arnold P. Kaminsky and Roger D. Long

Containing almost 250 entries written by scholars from around the world, this two-volume resource provides current, accurate, and useful information on the politics, economics, society, and cultures of India since 1947.

Today in History: Bastille Day

La Fete Nationale (Bastille Day)


Held every year on July 14, this is France's most important national holiday. The event marks the day in 1789 that Parisian mobs stormed the massive Bastille—a notorious prison and symbol of the excesses of French aristocracy—the act that inspired most of the nation's people to join the French Revolution. The French view the storming of the Bastille as an emblem of French independence and they honor the day with a national holiday, which they celebrate with parades, parties, and fireworks.


The Bastille was a medieval fortress in Paris, France that was used as a prison in the 18th century. As an act signifying the rebellion of the people against the injustices of the ancien régime (French for "former regime"), on July 14, 1789, a crowd stormed the Bastille, freed the prisoners, and destroyed the fortress.


"Bastille." World History: The Modern Era. ABC-CLIO, 2011. Web. 14 July 2011.
"France: Food and Holidays." World Geography: Understanding a Changing World. ABC-CLIO, 2011. Web. 14 July 2011.


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Learn more about our online resources at abc-clio.com.

Memorial Day

Memorial Day is observed in the United States on the last Monday in May to honor the nation’s war dead. The holiday emerged in the wake of the Civil War as “Decoration Day,” a name that endured well into the twentieth century and that described the most common commemorative rite, a sorrowful strewing of freshly-cut flowers on the graves of soldiers who had fallen in the Civil War. The history of Memorial Day is as complicated, surprising, and paradoxical as the story of any public holiday on the American calendar. Its origins are ambiguous and its transformation dramatic, as it developed from a somber and melancholy fête into a light day of leisure and pleasure, the unofficial openingday of summer. Memorial Day, focused largely on the mortal, patriotic service of men, has been a holiday in which women played a central role, and yet it was hardly feminist and remained profoundly conservative. Although a day originally designed to heighten memory, it has become for most Americans an occasion of blissful, escapist amusement or material consumption. Few Americans today know the origins or original purpose of Memorial Day.

- Excerpt from Encyclopedia of American Holidays and National Days by Len Travers



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Additional Resources

The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War

A Political, Social, and Military History, Second Edition

By Spencer C. Tucker, Editor

 

America's Heroes

Medal of Honor Recipients from the Civil War to Afghanistan

By James H. Willbanks, Editor

The United States Marine Corps

A Chronology, 1775 to the Present

By John C. Fredriksen

 

Celebrating Presidents' Day

By the late 19th century, the annual commemoration of Washington’s birthday on February 22nd became a federal holiday. The February 12th birthday of the equally admired Abraham Lincoln became an annual holiday in many states by the early 20th century. However, it wasn’t until 1971 that the celebrations of Washington’s and Lincoln’s birthdays were merged into one Presidents' Day.

Although the national holiday has become more commonly known as Presidents' Day, George Washington continues to stand as one of the most inspirational—yet enigmatic—figures in American history. Help your students learn more about Presidents' Day with resources from ABC-CLIO. Our American History database has content devoted to this topic.

Learn more by signing up for a free 60-day preview and receive instant access to our entire suite of databases.

We regularly add new content—articles, photos, facts and figures, Analyze key questions, and more to this suite of 13 award-winning online databases. As the world changes, we make sure that these databases reflect the most current information at all times. In addition, each database contains a Feature Story on its homepage—it’s an overview of an event, offering links to related current and historical reference resources and an examination of the event through perspectives drawn from current news articles. Feature Stories are updated regularly—every two to four weeks.

Christmas Into the 21st Century

To a large extent, Christmas is what Kris Kringle, in Miracle on 34th Street, called “a state of mind.” It is a broadly inclusive notion that expanded throughout the twentieth century in tandem with commerce and continues into the twenty-first. The combination has allowed Christmas to maintain a prominent place on the American calendar. At the same time, its ambiguous meanings and uses within the culture continue to render it vulnerable to ongoing reinterpretations and borrowings—the same processes that generated the domestic form of the holiday as it emerged in the antebellum years. Changes in concepts of private and public, a declining portion of the population claiming to be Christian, a rise in multiculturalism as a national value, and the significant expansion of consumer-driven economies in previously more traditional cultures outside America, have changed the holiday in subtle but important ways.

For example, changes to Christmas have resulted from greater American emphasis on cultural diversity. In the 1960s and 1970s, minority groups increasingly claimed rights to celebrate their own beliefs, sometimes in place of Christmas and sometimes alongside. Hanukkah, the Festival of Lights, a traditional but minor Jewish holiday, took on a higher profile after the founding of Israel in 1948. In the United States, its observance has continued to increase, providing both a symbol of Jewish identity and, since the eight-day festival usually occurs in December and has developed a gift-giving component, a counterweight to Christmas. Kwanzaa, another December holiday, celebrates African American and pan-African unity. American Maulana Karenga created the seven-day celebration of “traditional African values of family, community responsibility, commerce, and self-improvement” in 1966, as an expression of black consciousness. Kwanzaa has since spread throughout the world; an estimated 18 million now annually affirm its Seven Guiding Principles. These are but two examples of ways in which the keeping of Christmas has come to share, rather than claim with near exclusivity, in the expression of American identity.

This widened sense of the holiday season comports with demographic trends and a series of Christmas-related church-and-state legal opinions. Between 1990 and 2001, the proportion of the population classified “Christian” dropped from 86 percent to 77 percent, while “none of the above” has grown significantly. This changing religious demography has been reflected in an increased sensitivity to Christmas displays in public places. Some claim that a Nativity Scene, a school choir singing “Silent Night,” or, most recently, a store employee greeting a customer with “Merry Christmas” conflicts with personal beliefs and practices of non-Christians and nonobservers. The heightened tension has resulted in a number of lawsuits concerning the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, some of which have ascended to the Supreme Court. Yet courts have not set a clear standard. At most, the Court seems to have put a “stronger emphasis on the context in which Christmas symbols are placed than on the symbols themselves.” The implication is that a single crèche in a city park may be unconstitutional, but if “plastic reindeer,” Santa, and other secular symbols are displayed with it, the scene transforms from religious to a secular tableau and will probably be allowed.

The evolving pluralism of the American holiday season, replete with the most enduring of popular Christmas artifacts and symbols, has taken on an international dimension. Some regard this as a specimen of cultural imperialism or the result of the globalization of the marketplace. Following World War II, for instance, as occupied Japan became a trading partner with the Western world, it began to adopt a secular version of Christmas. Holiday lights and gifts began to appear side by side with eastern traditions and belief but seemingly offered little real religious or cultural competition. In fact, American-type Christmas celebrations may be characteristic of nations as they modernize trade and seek new and wider domestic markets. In most cases, Santa Claus, a god of materialism, reigns, but as important, each nation’s dominant culture adjusts its new holiday to its own ways. For example, secular Christmas images have begun to appear seasonally in China’s big city stores, but within the context of Chinese life, holly and Santa take on a slightly altered meaning and look. The same can be said of the holiday as it emerges in other lands. A recent television image showed Iraqi street hawkers wearing Santa hats. The red and white hats evoked Christmas, but not precisely the Christmas that Americans know.

At each turn, the expansion of Christmas has raised questions about its profanation, secularization, and commercialization. While some groups periodically fight to “put Christ back in Christmas,” others stress its more pluralistic values of peace on earth and good will toward all. Perhaps it is this very tension that keeps the holiday woven tightly into the fabric of American culture.

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Excerpted from Encyclopedia of American Holidays and National Days

By Len Travers

Greenwood, 2006

Did you know the Puritans did not celebrate Christmas? Or that trick or treating on Halloween began in the late 1930s?  Every holiday has a history, and this book sets out to tell it.